specialization can be seen as a response to the problem of an increasing accumulation of scientific knowledge. by splitting up the subject matter into smaller units, one man could continue to handle the information and use it as the basis for further research. but specialization was only one of a series of related developments in science affecting the process of communication. another was the growing professionalisation of scientific activity。

no clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule. neverthelss, the word “amateur” does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific community and, in particular, may not fully share its values. the growth of specialization in the nineteenth century, with its consequent requirement of a longer, more complex training, implied greater problems for amateur participation in science. the trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the united kingdom。

a comparison of british geological publications over the last century and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research, but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper. thus, in the nineteenth century, local geological studies represented worthwhile research in their own right; but, in the twentieth century, local studies have increasingly become acceptable to professionals only if they incorporate, and reflect on, the wider geological picture. amateurs, on the other hand, have continued to pursue local studies in the old way. the overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century. as a logical consequence of this development, separate journals have now appeared aimed mainly towards either professional or amateur readership. a rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or two specific societies, where the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way。

although the process of professionalisation and specialization was already well under way in british geology during the nineteenth century, its full consequences were thus delayed until the twentieth century. in science generally, however, the nineteenth century must be reckoned as the crucial period for this change in the structure of science。

21. the growth of specialization in the 19th century might be more clearly seen in sciences such as _________。

[a]sociology and chemistry

[b]physics and psychology

[c]sociology and psychology

[d]physics and chemistry

22. we can infer from the passage that _________。

[a]there is little distinction between specialization and professionalisation

[b]amateurs can compete with professionals in some areas of science

[c]professionals tend to welcome amateurs into the scientific community

[d]amateurs have national academic societies but no local ones

23. the author writes of the development of geology to demonstrate _________。

[a]the process of specialization and professionalisation

[b]the hardship of amateurs in scientific study

[c]the change of policies in scientific publications

[d]the discrimination of professionals against amateurs

24. the direct reason for specialization is _________。

[a]the development in communication

[b]the growth of professionalisation

[c]the expansion of scientific knowledge

[d]the splitting up of academic societies

名师解析
21. the growth of specialization in the 19th century might be more clearly seen in sciences such as_________.

19世纪专业化的打开在_______等科学领域简略看的愈加理解。

[a]sociology and chemistry 社会学和化学

[b]physics and psychology 物理学和心思学

[c]sociology and psychology 社会学和心思学

[d]physics and chemistry 物理学和化学

【答案】 d

【考点】实际细节题。

【分析】根据题干定位到第二段第三、四句，文中说到“专业化需求更长时刻、更凌乱的培训，给参加科学活动的业余人士带来了更大的疑问。在特别是以数学和实验为基础的那些科学领域里，这一倾向天然体现得最为显着，英国地质学领域的打开充分地阐明晰这一点”。在这四个选择项中，[a]、[b]、[c]都说到了“文科学科”，只需[d]选项中的“物理学和化学”均是“以数学和实验作为基础的科学”，因而可以揣度[d]选项契合原文，是正确答案。

22. we can infer from the passage that _____. 从这篇文章可以揣度出______。

[a] there is little distinction between specialization and professionalization

在专业化和作业化之间几乎没有差异

[b] amateurs can compete with professionals in some areas of science

业余人士在某些领域和专业人士可以竞赛

[c] professionals tend to welcome amateurs into the scientific community

专业人士看上去是期赋闲余人士参加科学集体的

[d] amateurs have national academic societies but no local ones

业余人士看起来只需全国性的学术协会，可是没有当地性的学术协会

【答案】 b

【考点】揣度题。

【分析】选项[a]中说到“专业化和作业化之间几乎没有差异”，而实践上，它们指的是“不一样的领域和方向”，“specialization”关于“研讨目标”，“professionalization”关于“研讨者”，因而可以打扫。选项[c]说“专业人士看上去是期赋闲余人士参加科学集体”这种说法也是不对的，因为专业化的打开使得业余人士遭到架空。[d]选项显着差错，因为文中说到“既有全国性的学术协会，又有当地性的学术协会”。第三段指出“部分的研讨(local studies)只需在能被归入并反映出更广泛研讨规划的时分，才为专业人士所承受”。这阐明，某些方面的研讨是为专业研讨者所认可的，一起阐明晰业余研讨与作业研讨并存的情况。已然是并存的，就阐明在某个当地是可以竞赛的。因而选择[b]。

23. the author writes of the development of geology to demonstrate ______。

作者说到地质学打开是为了阐明______。

[a] the process of specialization and professionalization

专业化和作业化的进程

[b] the hardship of amateurs in scientific study

业余人士在科学研讨方面的艰苦

[c] the change of policies in scientific publications

科技出书方针的改变

[d] the discrimination of professionals against amateurs

作业人士对业余人士的轻视

【答案】 a

【考点】作者意图题。

【分析】根据题干“地质学打开”定位到第二段结束和第三段，第三段首要讲的是地质学的打开；以及第四段第一句“尽管作业化和专业化进程早在19世纪已在英国的地质学领域打开，但直到20世纪咱们才看到其全部影响”，因而可以判别这儿的正确答案是[a]。[b]选项认为是“业余研讨者在科学研讨方面的艰苦”。比方中尽管说到了专业化给业余研讨者带来的晦气影响.可是从全体来看，那个不是要点，地质学的比方首要是为了阐明“专业化和作业化进程的构成及其影响”。

24. the direct reason for specialization is _______. 构成专业化的直接缘由是_______。

[a] the development in communication 交流的打开

[b] the growth of professionalization 作业化的打开

[c] the expansion of scientific knowledge 科学常识的拓宽

[d] the splitting up of academic societies 学术集体的分化

【答案】 c

【考点】实际细节题。

【分析】本题需求考生找呈表象间的因果联络。全文开篇就指出，“专业化进程可以被看做是对日益堆集的科学常识的反应”。这句话的意义实践上就是“科学常识的堆集推进了专业化”。因而可以断定[c]是正确选项。[a]选项是不对的，因为根据其间的“交流”一词可以定位到第一段，文中说到“专业化影响了交流进程”，而不是反之。[b]不对，“专业化是跟着常识的进一步分类而发生的，是和作业化一起发生的”，不是其成因。[d]为专业化的成果。

难句解析:
1. nevertheless, the word“amateur”does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific community and, in particular, may not fully share its values。

【规划分析】本句的主句是“the word‘amateur’does carry a connotation”，后边有一个“that”引导的同位语从句，说明“connotation”，而这个同位语从句中有两个并排谓语。

2. the trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the united kingdom。

【规划分析】本句的骨干是“the trend was naturally most obvious… and can be illustrated…”。主语是“the trend”，两个谓语有些为“was obvious”和“can be illustrated”。前一个有些中“based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training”是曩昔分词做后置定语润饰“areas of science”。

3. the overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century。

【规划分析】本句的骨干规划是“the overall result has been to do sth。”。逗号后边只是一个名词性的短语，其要害词是“a result”，是前面语句主语的同位语，在其内部首要是一个“that”引导的定语从句，而定语从句中又有两个并排的状语“first by..., and then by.。.”。

4. a rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or two specific societies, whereas the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way。

【规划分析】这是一个并排句，由“whereas”(而)联接两个分句，阐明晰两种情况，前

一个分句的骨干是“a process of differentiation has led to professional geologists”，然后边说“the amateurs have tended either to remain…or to come…”。

全文翻译:

专业化可被看作关于科学常识不断胀大这个疑问所做出的反应。经过将学科细分为各个小的单元，自个可以持续处置这些信息并将它们作为进一步研讨的基础。可是专业化只是是一系列有关科学前进中影响交流进程的的一个。另一表象是科学活动的日益作业化。

在科学领域内，作业人士与业余人士之间没有清楚的区别:任何规则都有其破例。可是“业余”这个词的确具有一种意义，即有关的那自个没有完全融入某个科学家集体，特别是他可以并不完全认同他们的价值观。19世纪的专业化的打开，致使了对更长更凌乱的练习的需求，意味着业余人员进入科学界会遇到更大的困难。特别是在以数学和实验室练习为基础的科学领域，这种倾向天然尤为显着，这可以经过英国的地质学打开进程得到证明。

对曩昔一个半世纪的英国地质出书物所进行的比照标明不但我们对研讨首要性的注重程度在不断添加，而且对啥是可以承受的论文的界说也在不断改变。因而，在19世纪，部分的地质研讨本身就代表了一种有价值的研讨；而到了20世纪，假定部分的研讨可以被作业人员承受，那么它就有必要联系和思考一个愈加广大的地质容颜。另一方面，业余人员持续以传统方法从事部分的研讨。成果，业余人员在作业化地质学杂志宣告文章愈加困难。审稿准则首要在19世纪的全国性杂志中实施，后来在20世纪一些当地性地质杂志中也初步实施，这使这个成果得到进一步加强。这样打开的必定成果是呈现了关于专业读者和业余读者的不一样杂志。类似的分化进程也致使作业地质学家集合起来，构成一两个全国性的集体，而业境地质学家则要么留在当地性集体中，要么以不一样方法组满足国性的集体。

尽管作业化和专业化进程在19世纪的英国地质学界中现已得到灵敏打开，可是它的作用一向拖到20世纪才充分闪现出来。可是，从整个科学来看，19世纪有必要被视为科学规划发生该改变的要害期间。
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